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Effective Steroid Injections for Cystic Acne Scars Treatment in Korea

Effective Steroid Injections for Cystic Acne Scars Treatment in Korea
Tuesday, Jun 24, 2025

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Cystic acne is the most severe type of inflammatory acne, showing up as large, painful, pus-filled pimples—often called cysts—that form deep under the skin. These cysts can be tender, range from pea- to dime-sized, and sometimes ooze pus or develop a crust. They’re often mistaken for boils, which are actually skin infections.

Cystic acne starts when pores get clogged with excess oil (sebum) and dead skin cells. If bacteria get trapped in these blocked pores, a deep infection and inflammation develop in the skin’s middle layer, the dermis. This deep infection sets cystic acne apart from milder forms and makes it tough to treat. The face, chest, back, upper arms, and shoulders are common spots for these breakouts.

Several factors can make someone more likely to develop cystic acne. Teenagers are especially at risk, but a family history, hormonal changes (like puberty, periods, pregnancy, menopause, or PCOS), high stress, certain medications, specific skin products, tight clothing, humidity, or heavy sweating can all play a role. It’s important to know that things like not washing your face enough, sexual activity, or eating chocolate, greasy, or spicy foods aren’t proven causes of acne.

cystic acne korea

People often describe their cystic acne as “large painful nodules,” which is similar to nodular acne. Both cause deep, painful bumps and can lead to scarring. The main difference is that acne cysts are filled with pus, while nodules are solid. Because they’re so similar, both are often grouped together as “nodulocystic acne.”

There’s also a rare, very severe form called “Acne Conglobata.” This condition causes tender, disfiguring, interconnected comedones, cysts, nodules, and deep abscesses that can ooze foul-smelling pus. These lesions often form in groups of three and almost always leave significant scars. Acne Conglobata is part of the “follicular occlusion tetrad,” which includes other follicular disorders like dissecting cellulitis, pilonidal disease, and hidradenitis suppurativa.

Why Professional Treatment is Crucial

Cystic acne is hard to treat with over-the-counter products, which usually only help surface blemishes. Trying to pop or pick at cysts is a bad idea—it increases the risk of permanent scarring and can cause serious infections like cellulitis. The infection is deep in the skin, so squeezing can push the contents further in, making things worse.

If you have “large painful nodules,” it’s a sign to see a dermatologist right away. This isn’t just a cosmetic issue—it can have long-term physical and emotional effects if not treated properly. Early professional care can prevent severe breakouts, reduce scarring, and ease the emotional burden of severe acne.

Clearing cystic acne takes time—often three months or more. Treatment usually involves prescription oral medications (like antibiotics or isotretinoin) and strong topical gels or creams. Gentle skincare is key: wash twice daily with your fingertips and a mild cleanser, use lukewarm water, and avoid harsh scrubbing. Don’t pick at blemishes, protect your skin from the sun, manage stress, and consider a healthy, low-glycemic diet.

Cystic acne can leave permanent scars—deep holes (icepick scars), pits, or uneven indentations. Pigment changes (pink, purple, red, black, or brown spots) are also common and can take over a year to fade. The difference between pus-filled cysts and solid nodules highlights the need for a professional diagnosis. Self-treating based on online searches for “painful lumps” often leads to using ineffective products, which can make things worse and increase the risk of scarring.

Conditions like Acne Conglobata show that some people searching for “cystic acne” may actually have an even more severe problem. For these cases, a simple steroid injection isn’t enough—systemic therapies and long-term management are needed. This makes a thorough diagnosis and personalized treatment plan essential, as the best approach can vary widely depending on the specific type and severity of acne.

Table 1: Common Pseudonyms and Key Characteristics of Cystic Acne and Related Conditions

ConditionKey CharacteristicsDepthPain/TendernessScarring PotentialCommon LocationsSeverity
Cystic AcnePus-filled, red lump, resembles boils, oozing, crusty; pea- to dime-sizedDeep under skin (dermis)YesHigh (icepick, pitted, uneven)Face, Chest, Back, Upper Arms, ShouldersSevere, Most Severe Type
Nodular AcneSolid, firm lumps/knots, red bumps on surface, no whitehead/blackheadDeep under skin (dermis)YesHigh (pitted, textured areas)Face, Jawline, Chin, Back, Chest, ShouldersSevere
Nodulocystic AcneGrouping term for both cystic and nodular acne due to similaritiesDeep under skinYesHighFace, Chest, Back, Shoulders, Upper ArmsSevere
Acne ConglobataTender, disfiguring, interconnected comedones, cysts, nodules, deep abscesses; foul-smelling pus; groups of threeDeep under skin (dermis)YesInevitable (disfigurement)Face, Shoulders, Back, Chest, Upper Arms, Buttocks, ThighsRare but Severe

Steroid Injections for Acne Scars: A Detailed Medical Procedure

Steroid injections—formally called intralesional corticosteroid injections—are a targeted treatment for severe acne lesions and certain scars. Dermatologists usually perform these procedures in specialized clinics. The most common steroid used is triamcinolone acetonide, also known as “intralesional triamcinolone.” Kenalog is another corticosteroid sometimes used.

What are Steroid Injections? Mechanism of Action and Types of Steroids Used

Corticosteroids are strong anti-inflammatory drugs. When injected directly into an inflamed acne lesion or scar, they quickly reduce inflammation by blocking the chemical signals that attract white blood cells. This helps minimize pus formation. Steroids also affect collagen in the skin, breaking down excess collagen and softening raised scars. This helps flatten and smooth out the scar over time. They also slow down cell division and collagen production, which is important for treating conditions with too much tissue growth.

Injecting steroids directly into the lesion is more effective than using creams or pills because it delivers the medicine right where it’s needed. This targeted approach means fewer whole-body side effects, since very little steroid enters the bloodstream compared to oral steroids.

Purpose and Objectives of the Procedure

The main goal of steroid injections is to quickly relieve inflammation and pain from severe acne lesions like cysts and nodules. They can shrink large lesions within 24 to 72 hours.

Steroid injections also help prevent new scars from forming and improve the appearance of existing raised scars (hypertrophic scars and keloids) by flattening and softening them. This leads to smoother skin and better cosmetic results.

Indications for Treatment

Steroid injections are most often used for excess scar tissue (hypertrophic and keloid scars), acne cysts, and alopecia areata. For acne, they’re especially helpful for large, painful, deep lesions that haven’t responded to other treatments. They’re also used as a “rescue treatment” for urgent situations, like a breakout before a big event.

It’s important to know that steroid injections aren’t a long-term solution for chronic acne and don’t treat the root causes. They don’t work for pitted (atrophic) scars, which need different treatments. However, they can be part of a broader acne treatment plan, especially while waiting for other medications like isotretinoin to take effect.

While steroid injections offer quick, targeted relief, they’re mainly a temporary fix and not a cure. Relying only on injections means acne is likely to come back. That’s why they should be part of a comprehensive treatment plan that addresses the underlying causes.

Triamcinolone acetonide is the most commonly used and effective steroid for these injections, while others like betamethasone phosphate are less beneficial. Patients should ask about the specific type and concentration of steroid being used to ensure they’re getting the best treatment, especially when seeking care abroad.

Potential Side Effects and Risks

Steroid injections are generally safe when done by a qualified professional, but there are some possible side effects.

Immediate Side Effects:

  • Pain: Most people feel a mild pinch or sting during the injection, which is quick. Sensitive areas or keloid scars can be more uncomfortable. Over-the-counter painkillers and topical anesthetic creams can help.
  • Bleeding: Minor bleeding at the injection site is possible but usually stops with pressure.
  • Redness and Swelling: Mild redness or swelling is common and usually goes away in a few days.

Subsequent Side Effects:

  • Skin Atrophy (Thinning) or Depression: This can show up as a dent or sunken area at the injection site. It’s often temporary but can last weeks to months. Too much steroid or a high concentration increases this risk and can cause pitted scars.
  • Pigment Changes: The skin may lighten (hypopigmentation) or, less often, darken (hyperpigmentation), especially in people with darker skin.
  • Telangiectasia: Small blood vessels may become more visible.
  • Infection: Rarely, an infection can develop at the injection site, possibly leading to an abscess.
  • Other Rare Effects: Temporary increased hair growth or acne-like spots near the injection site can occur.

Because of these risks, especially skin thinning and pigment changes, it’s crucial to get injections from an experienced dermatologist who can adjust the dosage and technique to minimize side effects. For medical tourists, clinic selection should focus on expertise and safety, not just price.

Systemic Side Effects: The amount of steroid used is small, so whole-body side effects are rare. In very sensitive people, mood changes or insomnia can happen. More serious effects like weight gain or menstrual changes are usually linked to oral steroids, but are theoretically possible if a lot is absorbed.

Table 2: Overview of Steroid Injection Procedure Steps and Expected Outcomes

PhaseProcedure StepDetailsExpected OutcomesPotential Side Effects
Phase 1: Pre-TreatmentInitial ConsultationAssessment of scar/lesion, location, age, skin type; discussion of options and expectationsClear understanding of planNone
PreparationArea cleaned; topical anesthetic appliedClean, numb skinMild temporary numbness
Phase 2: The ProcedureInjectionFine needle injects corticosteroid (e.g., Triamcinolone acetonide); dosage tailoredTargeted medication deliveryMild pinch/sting, minor bleeding
Phase 3: Post-TreatmentImmediate Post-CareIce pack to reduce swelling; gentle skincare and sun protectionReduced swelling, protected areaTemporary redness, mild swelling
Follow-up SessionsInjections every 3–6 weeks; most need 3–6 sessionsProgressive improvementSkin thinning/indentation, pigment changes, rare infection
Expected ResultsSignificant reduction in size, inflammation, and pain within 24–72 hours; improved appearanceOverall improvement, sometimes permanent for scarsVariable duration; possible recurrence if not addressed

Best Clinics in Korea for Cystic Acne

Listed below are the best clinics in Korea for cystic acne:

Clinic NameKey FeaturesSpecial Techniques
Kowon Plastic SurgeryPatient-centered approach with individualized treatment plans; latest medical technologies and evidence-based treatments; experienced medical team; wide range of complementary procedures including scar revision and skin rejuvenation; focus on natural-looking results; thorough consultation and follow-up care; located in SinsaAdvanced medical techniques for cystic acne and skin concerns; scar revision; skin rejuvenation
Re and Re Plastic SurgeryOver 15 years experience and 20,000+ procedures; comprehensive dermatology services including advanced laser skin resurfacing; personalized treatment plans; multidisciplinary team of board-certified plastic surgeons and dermatologists; state-of-the-art facilities; proven track record in surgical and non-surgical procedures; focus on natural-looking outcomes and long-term skin healthAdvanced laser skin resurfacing; surgical and non-surgical aesthetic procedures for cystic acne and scars
Myung Ok-hune Korean Medicine ClinicIntegrates traditional Korean herbal medicine with modern therapies; customized herbal treatments and acupuncture; treats external symptoms and internal imbalances; experienced practitioners; non-invasive natural methods; located in Cheongdam, Gangnam-gu; holistic skin and cosmetic treatmentsTraditional Korean herbal medicine; acupuncture; holistic and natural acne care

Kowon Plastic Surgery

Kowon Plastic Surgery, located in Sinsa, is a highly regarded clinic in Korea known for its expertise and patient-focused care. The clinic offers a comprehensive range of specialized cosmetic procedures, combining advanced medical techniques with a personalized approach to ensure optimal results for every patient. Kowon Plastic Surgery stands out for its commitment to safety, natural-looking outcomes, and attentive aftercare, making it a top choice for those seeking effective solutions for cystic acne and other skin concerns.

Why Kowon Plastic Surgery is the Best Clinic for Cystic Acne:

  • Renowned for its patient-centered approach, ensuring individualized treatment plans tailored to each patient’s unique skin condition and needs.
  • Utilizes the latest medical technologies and evidence-based treatments for cystic acne, maximizing effectiveness while minimizing side effects.
  • Experienced medical team with a deep understanding of both cosmetic and dermatological procedures, providing comprehensive care for acne and its aftereffects, such as scarring.
  • Offers a wide range of complementary procedures, including scar revision and skin rejuvenation, to address both active acne and long-term skin health.
  • Focuses on natural-looking results, helping patients achieve clear, healthy skin without an over-treated appearance.
  • Provides thorough consultation and follow-up care, supporting patients throughout their treatment journey for the best possible outcomes.
  • Conveniently located in Sinsa, making it accessible for both local and international patients seeking high-quality acne treatment in Korea.

Find more about this clinic here: Kowon Plastic Surgery Website

Re and Re Plastic Surgery

Re and Re Plastic Surgery is a renowned clinic located in Nonhyeon, Seoul, with over 15 years of experience and a track record of more than 20,000 successful procedures. The clinic is highly respected for its expertise in eye, nose, and breast surgeries, as well as advanced dermatological treatments. Re and Re Plastic Surgery is dedicated to providing personalized care and achieving natural, beautiful results for every patient. Their team of skilled surgeons and dermatologists utilize the latest techniques and technologies, making the clinic a top choice for those seeking effective solutions for cystic acne and other skin concerns.

Key reasons why Re and Re Plastic Surgery is the best clinic for cystic acne:

  • Extensive experience with over 15 years in the field and more than 20,000 successful procedures.
  • Comprehensive dermatology services, including advanced laser skin resurfacing, which is highly effective for treating acne scars and improving skin texture.
  • Personalized treatment plans tailored to each patient’s unique skin type and acne severity.
  • A multidisciplinary team of board-certified plastic surgeons and dermatologists ensures holistic care and optimal results.
  • State-of-the-art facilities and the latest medical technologies for safe and effective acne treatment.
  • Proven track record in both surgical and non-surgical aesthetic procedures, ensuring a wide range of options for patients with cystic acne.
  • Focus on natural-looking outcomes and long-term skin health, not just temporary solutions.

Find more about this clinic here: Re and Re Plastic Surgery Website

Myung Ok-hune Korean Medicine Clinic

Myung Ok-hune Korean Medicine Clinic, located in the heart of Cheongdam, Gangnam-gu, Seoul, is renowned for its unique blend of traditional Korean medicine and modern therapeutic techniques. The clinic specializes in holistic skin and cosmetic treatments, offering personalized care that addresses both the root causes and visible symptoms of skin concerns. With a focus on enhancing natural beauty and wellness, Myung Ok-hune Korean Medicine Clinic stands out as a leading destination for those seeking effective and gentle solutions for cystic acne and other skin conditions.

Why Myung Ok-hune Korean Medicine Clinic is the best choice for cystic acne:

  • Integrates traditional Korean herbal medicine with advanced modern therapies for comprehensive acne care.
  • Offers customized herbal treatments and acupuncture to reduce inflammation, clear cystic acne, and prevent recurrence.
  • Focuses on treating both external symptoms and internal imbalances, ensuring long-term skin health.
  • Experienced practitioners provide individualized treatment plans tailored to each patient’s unique skin needs.
  • Utilizes non-invasive, natural methods that minimize side effects and support overall wellness.
  • Conveniently located in Cheongdam, Gangnam-gu, with easy access and a welcoming, professional environment.
  • Provides additional skin and cosmetic treatments, allowing for a holistic approach to beauty and confidence.

Find more about this clinic here: Myung Ok-hune Korean Medicine Clinic Website

South Korea is a top destination for advanced skincare and dermatology, attracting many international patients.

Why South Korea for Dermatological Treatments?

South Korea’s healthcare system features modern, clean facilities and high-tech equipment. Dermatologists are highly skilled and often combine steroid injections with other advanced treatments like laser resurfacing, chemical peels, microneedling, and HydraFacial. This multi-modal approach addresses not just acne lesions but also scarring, pigmentation, and texture issues.

Pricing is another big draw—procedures are typically 30–60% less expensive than in the U.S. or Western Europe, with some beauty treatments up to 70–80% cheaper. Plus, South Korea offers a rich cultural experience and access to popular K-beauty products.

Combining steroid injections with other therapies can lead to better results for patients with both active acne and scars, making South Korea a great choice for comprehensive care.

The Process of Getting Steroid Injections in South Korea

Here’s what to expect if you’re considering steroid injections in South Korea:

  • Initial Consultation: You’ll start with a thorough evaluation by a dermatologist, who will assess your scar’s type, location, age, and your skin type. This helps determine the number of sessions needed and sets realistic expectations. Some agencies offer discounted or free consultations.
  • Preparation: The treatment area is carefully cleaned, and a topical anesthetic is applied for comfort.
  • Injection: A fine needle injects corticosteroid (usually Triamcinolone acetonide) directly into the scar or lesion. The amount and depth are tailored to your needs. The injection takes about 15 seconds and is usually only mildly uncomfortable.
  • Post-Procedure Care: You might have mild redness or swelling, which fades in a few days. Ice packs help, and you can return to normal activities right away. Use sunscreen and gentle skincare, avoid strenuous activity for a day or two, and don’t touch or pick at the site.
  • Frequency and Duration: Most people need 3–6 sessions, spaced 3–6 weeks apart, depending on the severity and response.
  • Expected Results: While scars may not disappear completely, most patients see significant flattening and softening after a few sessions.

Choosing the Right Clinic in South Korea

South Korea has a range of clinics, from specialized centers to larger “factory-style” clinics. Look for clinics with board-certified dermatologists, personalized care, and good patient reviews. Some high-volume clinics may offer lower prices but can feel rushed or impersonal, so do your research and book 2–4 weeks in advance, especially during busy seasons.

Examples of clinics include Sinsa Egg Clinic, Kowon Plastic Surgery, Three Wishes Clinic, Cheongdam Oracle Clinic, Jfeel Clinic, Lienjang Clinic, and Heyday Clinic. Check if the clinic offers tax refunds and clarify what’s included in the price.

Table 3: Step-by-Step Process for Steroid Injections in South Korea

PhaseStepDetails
Phase 1: Pre-TreatmentInitial ConsultationDermatologist evaluates scar/lesion, discusses options, determines sessions, sets expectations
PreparationSkin cleansed, topical anesthetic applied
Phase 2: The ProcedureInjectionFine needle injects corticosteroid (usually Triamcinolone acetonide); dosage tailored
Phase 3: Post-TreatmentImmediate Post-CareIce pack, gentle skincare, sun protection, avoid touching site
Follow-up SessionsInjections every 3–6 weeks; most need 3–6 sessions
Expected ResultsScars significantly reduced in appearance after a few sessions; individual results vary

Cost Analysis: Steroid Injections in South Korea vs. Global Medical Tourism Destinations

South Korea is known for its advanced healthcare and competitive prices, especially for dermatology.

Factors Influencing Costs in South Korea

Several factors affect the cost of steroid injections:

  • Severity and Type of Scar: More severe scars may need higher doses, more injections, or more sessions, increasing the cost.
  • Treatment Method: Combining steroid injections with other treatments (lasers, microneedling, peels) affects pricing.
  • Clinic Reputation and Location: Clinics in prime areas like Gangnam may charge more, but good value can be found elsewhere.
  • Doctor’s Experience: More experienced dermatologists may charge higher fees.
  • Number of Sessions: Multiple sessions (usually 3–6) add to the total cost.

What’s Included: Costs often cover the initial consultation, treatment sessions, post-care recommendations, medications, and follow-up appointments. This transparency helps patients budget and avoid surprises.

Additional Considerations: Many clinics require a 10% deposit. Prices may not include a 10% VAT, but medical tourists can often get a 7–9% VAT refund.

Prices vary, so ask clinics exactly what’s included. Here are some typical costs:

  • Steroid Injection Session: $100–$300 USD per session
  • Lienjang Clinic: Anti-Inflammatory Injection (TA) ₩10,000 per pimple ($7) or ₩50,000 for full face ($35)
  • Heyday Clinic: Tramcinolone Injection ₩5,000 per injection ($3.50) or ₩50,000 for 10 injections ($35)
  • Apax Medical: From $120 USD per session
  • Bookimed: Acne Scar Treatment in Seoul averages $400 USD (range $300–$500)

Other Scar Treatments:

  • [Hypertrophic Scar Treatment](/blog/hypertrophic-scar-treatment-korea): $100–$500 USD
  • Laser Scar Removal: $200–$500 USD
  • Chemical Peels: $100–$200 USD
  • Microneedling with RF: $100–$300 USD
  • Dermal Fillers: $500–$1,000 USD
  • Surgical Scar Revision: $1,000–$1,500 USD
  • General Scar Removal: $300–$700 USD

Table 4: Estimated Costs of Steroid Injections and Related Scar Treatments in South Korea

Procedure/ClinicCost Range (USD)Cost Range (KRW)Notes
General Steroid Injection (per session)$100 - $300Per session, general range
Lienjang Clinic (Anti-Inflammatory TA)~$7 - $35₩10,000 - ₩50,000Per pimple or full face
Heyday Clinic (Tramcinolone Injection)~$3.50 - $35₩5,000 - ₩50,000Single or 10 injections
Apax Medical (Cortisone Injection)From $120Starting price
Bookimed (Acne Scar Treatment)$300 - $500Average price
Hypertrophic Scar Treatment$100 - $500₩145,000 - ₩725,000
Scar Revision Surgery$1,000 - $5,000₩1,450,000 - ₩7,250,000
Laser Scar Removal$200 - $500₩290,000 - ₩725,000
Chemical Peels$100 - $200₩145,000 - ₩290,000
Microneedling with RF$100 - $300₩145,000 - ₩435,000
Dermal Fillers$500 - $1,000₩725,000 - ₩1,450,000
Surgical Scar Revision$1,000 - $1,500₩1,450,000 - ₩2,175,000
General Scar Removal$300 - $700₩435,000 - ₩1,015,000

Note: USD to KRW conversions are approximate. Prices may not include 10% VAT.

Comparison with Other Countries from a Medical Tourist's Perspective

South Korea offers significant savings compared to Western countries, with procedures 30–60% cheaper and sometimes up to 70–80% less for beauty treatments. However, for exact comparisons, patients should contact clinics directly for quotes, as detailed cost data for steroid injections in other countries is limited.

Table 5: Cost Comparison: South Korea vs. Other Medical Tourism Destinations for Steroid Injections/Scar Treatments

CountryProcedure/TreatmentCost Range (USD)Notes
South KoreaSteroid Injections for Scars (per session)$100 - $300General range per session
Hypertrophic Scar Treatment$100 - $500Ballpark for related scar treatment
USASteroid Injections for Scars$200 - $1,000Often includes multiple sessions
MexicoScar Removal Treatments$150 - $600More affordable than U.S.
TurkeyScar Removal Treatments$200 - $2,000Competitive prices
AustraliaSteroid Injections for Keloid Scars$130 - $260Often includes consultations
SingaporeIntralesional Steroid Injections$110 - $150Multiple sessions often needed

South Korea stands out for its combination of expertise, technology, and value, with transparent pricing and comprehensive care.

Patient Perspectives: Real-World Experiences with Steroid Injections for Cystic Acne

Patients who’ve had steroid injections for cystic acne and scars often report quick relief and improved appearance, but also note some limitations and risks.

Reported Benefits and Immediate Results

Many patients see a rapid reduction in the size and pain of acne cysts after steroid injections. Relief can come within 24–48 hours, making it a popular “emergency treatment” before important events. The risk of scarring is reduced, and raised scars become flatter and softer. Some call it a “miracle” for stubborn blemishes. Improved skin often leads to better self-confidence and mental well-being. Steroid injections are especially helpful for lesions that don’t respond to other treatments and can bridge the gap while waiting for long-term medications to work.

Common Concerns and Challenges

  • Pain During Injection: Usually mild, but can be more uncomfortable in sensitive areas or keloid scars. Topical anesthetics help.
  • Skin Atrophy/Indentation: Temporary thinning or dimpling is a common worry. It usually resolves, but sometimes lasts longer.
  • Pigment Changes: Lightening or darkening of the skin can occur, especially in darker skin tones.
  • Not a Cure: Injections provide temporary relief but don’t stop future breakouts.
  • Cost: Multiple sessions can add up, though prices are often competitive.
  • Clinic Experience: Some patients feel rushed in high-volume clinics.
  • Limited Efficacy: Occasionally, the injection doesn’t fully resolve the cyst.
  • Risk of Infection Spread: Rare, but possible if the injection is done improperly.
  • Limited Long-Term Data: More research is needed on long-term outcomes.

Long-Term Outcomes and Expectations

Results vary—some people see lasting improvement, while others find the effects temporary. For keloid scars, results can be permanent. Steroid injections are best for immediate relief and scar prevention, but not as a standalone cure. Long-term management usually includes other medications and treatments, with regular dermatologist follow-up to monitor progress and adjust the plan.

Conclusion

Cystic acne is a severe condition that requires expert care to prevent scarring and infection. Steroid injections, especially with triamcinolone acetonide, offer fast relief for inflamed lesions and raised scars, but are best used as part of a broader treatment plan. South Korea is a leading destination for these procedures, combining quality, affordability, and advanced care. For the best results, patients should choose experienced providers, clarify costs, and integrate injections into a comprehensive acne management strategy.

References

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